The History of How Dogs Were Domesticated

The history of dog domestication is that of an ancient partnership between dogs (Canis lupus familiaris) and humans. That partnership was likely originally based on a human need for help with herding and hunting, for an early alarm system, and for a source of food in addition to the companionship many of us today know and love. In return, dogs received companionship, protection, shelter, and a reliable food source. But when this partnership first occurred is still under some debate. Dog history has been studied recently using mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA), which suggests that wolves and dogs split into different species around 100,000 years ago. Although mtDNA analysis has shed some light on the domestication event(s) which may have occurred between 40,000 and 20,000 years ago, researchers are not agreed on the results. Some analyses suggest that the original domestication location of dog domestication was in East Asia; others that the middle east was the original location of domestication; and still others that later domestication took place in Europe. What the genetic data has shown to date is that the history of dogs is as intricate as that of the people they lived alongside, lending support to the long depth of the partnership, but complicating origin theories. Two Domestications In 2016, a research team led by bioarchaeologist Greger Larson (Frantz et al. cited below) published mtDNA evidence for two places of origin for domestic dogs: one in Eastern Eurasia and one in Western Eurasia. According to that analysis, ancient Asian dogs originated from a domestication event from Asian wolves at least 12,500 years ago; while European Paleolithic dogs originated from an independent domestication event from European wolves at least 15,000 years ago. Then, says the report, at sometime before the Neolithic period (at least 6,400 years ago), Asian dogs were transported by humans to Europe where they displaced European Paleolithic dogs. That would explain why earlier DNA studies reported that all modern dogs were descended from one domestication event, and also the existence of evidence of two domestication event from two different far-flung locations. There were two populations of dogs in the Paleolithic, goes the hypothesis, but one of them—the European Paleolithic dog—is now extinct. A lot of questions remain: there are no ancient American dogs included in most of the data, and Frantz et al. suggest that the two progenitor species were descended from the same initial wolf population and both are now extinct. However, other scholars (Botiguà © and colleagues, cited below) have investigated and found evidence to support migration event(s) across the central Asia steppe region, but not for a complete replacement. They were unable to rule out Europe as the original domestication location. The Data: Early Domesticated Dogs The earliest confirmed domestic dog anywhere so far is from a burial site in Germany called Bonn-Oberkassel, which has joint human and dog interments dated to 14,000 years ago. The earliest confirmed domesticated dog in China was found in the early Neolithic (7000–5800 BCE) Jiahu site in Henan Province. Evidence for co-existence of dogs and humans, but not necessarily domestication, comes from Upper Paleolithic sites in Europe. These hold evidence for dog interaction with humans and include  Goyet Cave  in Belgium,  Chauvet  cave in France, and  Predmosti in the Czech Republic. European Mesolithic sites like Skateholm (5250–3700 BC) in Sweden have dog burials, proving the value of the furry beasts to hunter-gatherer settlements. Danger Cave in Utah is currently the earliest case of dog burial in the Americas, at about 11,000 years ago, likely a descendant of Asian dogs. Continued interbreeding with wolves, a characteristic found throughout the life history of dogs everywhere, has apparently resulted in the hybrid black wolf found in the Americas. Black fur coloration is a dog characteristic, not originally found in wolves. Dogs as Persons Some studies of dog burials dated to the Late Mesolithic-Early Neolithic Kitoi period in the Cis-Baikal region of Siberia suggests that in some cases, dogs were awarded person-hood and treated equally to fellow humans. A dog burial at the Shamanaka site was a male, middle-aged dog which had suffered injuries to its spine, injuries from which it recovered. The burial, radiocarbon dated to ~6,200 years ago (cal BP), was interred in a formal cemetery, and in a similar manner to the humans within that cemetery. The dog may well have lived as a family member. A wolf burial at the Lokomotiv-Raisovet cemetery (~7,300 cal BP) was also an older adult male. The wolfs diet (from stable isotope analysis) was made up of deer, not grain, and although its teeth were worn, there is no direct evidence that this wolf was part of the community. Nevertheless, it too was buried in a formal cemetery. These burials are exceptions, but not that rare: there are others, but there is also is evidence that fisher-hunters in Baikal consumed dogs and wolves, as their burned and fragmented bones appear in refuse pits. Archaeologist Robert Losey and associates, who conducted this study, suggest that these are indications that Kitoi hunter-gatherers considered that at least these individual dogs were persons. Modern Breeds and Ancient Origins Evidence for the appearance of breed variation is found in several European Upper Paleolithic sites. Medium-sized dogs (with wither heights between 45–60 cm) have been identified in Natufian sites in the Near East dated to ~15,500-11,000 cal BP). Medium to large dogs (wither heights above 60 cm) have been identified in Germany (Kniegrotte), Russia (Eliseevichi I), and Ukraine (Mezin), ~17,000-13,000 cal BP). Small dogs (wither heights under 45 cm) have been identified in Germany (Oberkassel, Teufelsbrucke, and Oelknitz), Switzerland (Hauterive-Champreveyres), France (Saint-Thibaud-de-Couz, Pont dAmbon) and Spain (Erralia) between ~15,000-12,300 cal BP. See the investigations by archaeologist Maud Pionnier-Capitan and associates for more information. A recent study of pieces of DNA called SNPs (single-nucleotide polymorphism) which have been identified as markers for modern dog breeds and published in 2012 (Larson et al) comes to some surprising conclusions: that despite the clear evidence for marked size differentiation in very early dogs (e.g., small, medium and large dogs found at Svaerdborg), this has nothing to do with current dog breeds. The oldest modern dog breeds are no more than 500 years old, and most date only from ~150 years ago. Theories of Modern Breed Origination Scholars now agree that most of the dog breeds we see today are recent developments. However, the astounding variation in dogs is a relic of their ancient and varied domestication processes. Breeds vary in size from the one pound (.5 kilogram) teacup poodles to giant mastiffs weighing over 200 lbs (90 kg). In addition, breeds have different limb, body, and skull proportions, and they also vary in abilities, with some breeds developed with special skills such as herding, retrieving, scent detection, and guiding. That may be because domestication occurred while humans were all hunter-gatherers at the time, leading extensively migrant lifeways. Dogs spread with them, and thus so for a while dog and human populations developed in geographic isolation for a time. Eventually, however, human population growth and trade networks meant people reconnected, and that, say scholars, led to the genetic admixture in the dog population. When dog breeds began to be actively developed about 500 years ago, they were created out of a fairly homogenous gene pool, from dogs with mixed genetic heritages which had been developed in widely disparate locations. Since the creation of kennel clubs, breeding has been selective: but even that was disrupted by World Wars I and II, when breeding populations all over the world were decimated or went extinct. Dog breeders have since reestablished such breeds using a handful of individuals or combining similar breeds. Sources Botiguà © LR, Song S, Scheu A, Gopalan S, Pendleton AL, Oetjens M, Taravella AM, Seregà ©ly T, Zeeb-Lanz A, Arbogast R-M et al. 2017. Ancient European dog genomes reveal continuity since the Early Neolithic. Nature Communications 8:16082.Frantz LAF, Mullin VE, Pionnier-Capitan M, Lebrasseur O, Ollivier M, Perri A, Linderholm A, Mattiangeli V, Teasdale MD, Dimopoulos EA et al. 2016. Genomic and archaeological evidence suggests a dual origin of domestic dogs. Science 352(6293):1228–1231.Freedman AH, Lohmueller KE, and Wayne RK. 2016. Evolutionary History, Selective Sweeps, and Deleterious Variation in the Dog. Annual Review of Ecology, Evolution, and Systematics 47(1):73–96.Geiger M, Evin A, Sà ¡nchez-Villagra MR, Gascho D, Mainini C, and Zollikofer CPE. 2017. Neomorphosis and heterochrony of skull shape in dog domestication. Scientific Reports 7(1):13443.Perri A. 2016. A wolf in dogs clothing: Initial dog domestication and Pleistocene wolf variation. Journal of Archae ological Science 68(Supplement C):1–4.Wang G-D, Zhai W, Yang H-C, Wang L, Zhong L, Liu Y-H, Fan R-X, Yin T-T, Zhu C-L, Poyarkov AD et al. 2015. Out of southern East Asia: the natural history of domestic dogs across the world. Cell Research 26:21.

Alzheimer s Disease A Disease - 1304 Words

Amanda Kruse Mr. Brimhall CTEC-CNA PM November 10, 2015 Alzheimer’s Disease Alzheimer’s is a disease in the brain that affects a person’s memory, thinking, and behavior. It is the most common form of dementia and is common in adults older than 65. More than five million Americans are being affected by Alzheimer’s at this moment. Alzheimer’s comes in three stages; early, middle, and advanced. The disease is caused by the shrinking of the brain due to many risk factors and genetics. Dementia and Alzheimer’s disease are often confused because of the similarities and mysteriousness that they share. According to the National Institute on Aging (NIA), the are actually very different in many ways. Dementia is term used to describe a disorder that impairs the mental processing of thoughts and memory. Other forms of dementia besides Alzheimer’s are Huntington’s Disease, Parkinson’s Disease and Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease. Alzheimer’s Disease is a form of dementia and is the most common, from 60-70% of all dementia cases. To determine cause of dementia, doctors will use different mental evaluations, brain scans, and blood tests. Alzheimer’s is diagnosed through the evidence that the brain scans provide. One significant difference between Alzheimer’s and dementia is the fact that Alzheimer’s is a nonreversible disease. Some forms of dementia are temporary or reversible but Alzheimer’s has no cure and is degenerative. The number of Americans living with Alzheimer’sShow MoreRelatedThe Disease Of Alzheimer s Disease1421 Words   |  6 Pagesengulfed by a mysterious disease. The neurons being cut off and destroyed by two abnormal structures. First memory is affected gradually getting worse. Then one is unable to think properly, reason, and lacks of self control. Gaps are formed in the brain s ventricles, due to the amount of dead tissue. In the end, it will lead to death. All of this may sound like something from a science fiction movie but infact its very real. These are all known possible symptoms of a common disease that affects aboutRead MoreThe Disease Of Alzheimer s Disease1677 Words   |  7 Pagesone thing Alzheimer s cannot take away, and that is love. Love is not a memory - it s a feeling that resides in your heart and soul.† (Fade to Blank). The human brain is a remarkably complex organ that processes, stores, and recalls information. â€Å"Alzheimer s dise ase (AD) is a slowly progressive disease of the brain that is characterized by impairment of memory and eventually by disturbances in reasoning, planning, language, and perception. Many scientists believe that Alzheimer s disease resultsRead MoreAlzheimer s Disease And Disease935 Words   |  4 Pageswith Alzheimer’s disease. This disease is commonly found in the elderly. This explains why people assume older people have a bad memory. Alzheimer’s does not occur in a short period of time, it typically takes months to develop. It involves gradual memory loss due to two specific protein fragments that spread to different parts of the brain killing brain cells as they go. As mentioned in the article Alzheimer’s Disease Fact Sheet (2015), Dr. Alois Alzheimer first discovered the disease by noticing somethingRead MoreThe Disease Of Alzheimer s Disease1304 Words   |  6 Pagesperson knows well, or asking questions continuously can be signs of a more serious problem . It is a disease of the brain that started slowly and gets worse as the time progresses. Alzheimer’s is a progressive destroying of brain tissue that primarily strikes people over the age of 65. Brain functions such as memory, comprehension, and speech deteriorate. The term first introduced by Dr. Alois Alzheimers in 1906. Memory is lost first. As days passes, attention tends to distracted, simple calculationsRead MoreThe Disease Of Alzheimer s Disease Essay1482 Words   |  6 PagesAlzheimer’s disease is a degenerative brain disease that is seen in the elderly. It is the most common form of dementia, which is a general term for memory loss and other intellectual abilities serious enough to interfere with daily life (Alzheimer’s Disease Dementia). Alzheimer’s is one of the leading causes of death in America. Dementia and Alzheimer’s have been around for centuries, but Alzheimer’s disease wasn’t first described until 1906 by Dr. Al oysius Alzheimer. In the past, there was aRead MoreThe Disease Of Alzheimer s Disease1172 Words   |  5 PagesAlzheimer’s Disease Alzheimer’s disease is the 6th leading cause of death in America. It kills more than breast cancer and prostate cancer combined. Alzheimer’s accounts for 70-80% of dementia cases. By the age of 65, 1 in 9 people are diagnosed and by the age of 85, 1 in 3 people will have the disease. According to the Alzheimer Association, 5 million people in American have Alzheimer’s. Alzheimer’s starts to form 20 years prior to being diagnosed. Learning about Alzheimer’s can help familiesRead MoreAlzheimer s Disease : Disease1759 Words   |  8 Pages Alzheimer’s Disease Madison Lollar Psychology 1030-C62 Volstate Community College Word Count: 1,589 Alzheimer’s Disease: When it comes to Alzheimer’s, I know firsthand how it affects individuals and their families. My great grandfather had Alzheimer’s for many years before his passing late last year, at age 92. Alzheimer’s is a disease that many individuals suffer with each year, but yet with all the advancements in modern medicine we still have no cure for it. There are differentRead MoreThe Disease Of Alzheimer s Disease1385 Words   |  6 PagesThe disease stem cells could fix is called Alzheimer’s Disease (AD). The reason I chose this topic is because I have seen first hand how badly someone who suffers from Alzheimer’s Disease is affected in their daily lives. This disease completely takes over their lives and they turn into a completely different person who can hardly function. AD is very tough on the loved ones of the person suffering from it because that person, most of the time has no idea what is going on or who their loved onesRead MoreThe Disease Of Alzhe imer s Disease2364 Words   |  10 Pages1. Introduction Alzheimer’s disease is a prominent brain disease that effects a massive amount of individuals in the United States. Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is the sixth leading cause of death in the United States, accounting for 60-80% of dementia cases, with no chance of being cured, prevented or decelerating over time (Alzheimer’s Association, 2014). AD is the most well-known form of dementia, causing complications in brain function in the areas of memory, thinking, and behavior (Alzheimer’sRead MoreThe Disease Of Alzheimer s Disease2246 Words   |  9 PagesINTRODUCTION Alzheimer’s Disease has been one of the top leading causes of death in our country. It is understood that this disease is identified as an excess of the protein amyloid-ß within an increase of plaque (Seneff, Wainwright, and Mascitelli, 2010). Additionally, as the brain ages, it gets used to the inflammation and oxidative stress, so it is important to take the right amount of antioxidant micronutrients like vitamin C and vitamin E as well as anti-inflammatory macronutrients such as

Comparison of Parent-Child Relationship in Two Novels Free Essays

The Parent-Child relationship in Where Are You Going, Where Have You Been, written by Joyce Carol Oates and in In the Gloaming, written by Alice Elliott Dark are two different demonstrations of relationships that parents and children have with one another. In Where Are You Going, Where Have You Been the Parent-Child Relationship was strained and distant in In the Gloaming, the Parent-Child Relationship was close and open. In Where Have You Been, Where Are You Going? Connie and her mother were always having conflicts with each other. We will write a custom essay sample on Comparison of Parent-Child Relationship in Two Novels or any similar topic only for you Order Now Connie was a very beautiful girl and Connie thought her mother was jealous of her beauty. Her mother was probably not jealous of Connie but concerned and thought she would attract the wrong attention. Connie’s mom constantly made remarks about Connie’s makeup and how her hairspray smelt. Connie’s mother often ridiculed Connie when Connie looked in the mirror by saying, â€Å"Stop gawking at yourself. , who do you think you are? You think you are so pretty. † Connie would become so angry with her mother, she even wished her mother dead. Connie never liked to speak to her mother and did not want to be around her mother. In the presence of her mother Connie could not be herself so when she was away from her mother she would act and dress inappropriate for a 15 year old girl. Connie’s motivation for dressing provocatively was to attract attention from boys. Unbeknownst to Connie her mother was right, looking and dressing inappropriate would eventually cause Connie extreme danger. In the story In the Gloaming the Parent-Child Relationship was very different. Instead of being strained and distant the relationship are strong and loving. Laird’s mother was a compassionate mother who was so determined to make her son happy that it became an obsession. The only thing Laird’s mother cared about and thought about was making Laird happy. Laird and his mother often talked at enormous length about life, love and happiness. Laird’s mother was extremely open with Laird about her life. Laird also enjoyed talking to his mother about life, love and dreams. The dialogue between Laird and his mother would often become very personal. Laird was always thinking about his mother. Laird always wanted to know what she cared about and always wanted his mother’s opinion. Every night at sunset Laird, his mother and his father would eat dinner together. After dinner Laird’s father would go to his study work while Laird and his mother talked about everything. Laird and his mother would look out of the window and watch the sunset, the sky would turn a heather color, they would refer to this time of night as the â€Å"gloaming†. The gloaming became more than a sunset it became a symbol to Laird and his mother. Laird and his mother looked forward to their special time when nothing else mattered but themselves and their conversation. Laird’s mother treasured this special time because Laird was very ill and would soon die. Laird needed to know everything about his mother before he died and Laird’s mother needed to know everything about Laird before he died. So, every night they would sit and talk for hours. Laird was the love of his mother’s life, he and his mother were inseparable until the day he died. The relationship between Connie and her mother may have been different if one of them was ill. Furthermore, the relationship between Laird and his mother may have been more strained if Laird had not been ill and needed his mother so much. The Parent-Child relationship can be very different and at times very difficult. Some children see their parent’s in a different point of view than their siblings. The relationship can be a positive experience or a negative experience. Laird and his mother’s conversations became something to look forward to. Connie’s conversations with her mother became something she resented and dreaded. How to cite Comparison of Parent-Child Relationship in Two Novels, Essay examples

Employment Trends and Job Satisfaction in the Oil and Gas Industry Essay Sample free essay sample

The popular imperativeness has late reported that the oil industry is come ining an evolutionary stage withseveral potentially long-run tendencies get downing to emerge. The writers present a reappraisal oftheoretically relevant work associating to these tendencies and a survey analyzing the expected effectsthese tendencies might hold on the employment environment in the oil and gas industry. The survey was conducted in two stages. The first stage was focus-qualitative utilizing interview groups. The consequences of these focal point groups indicated that the oil industry is sing a period of consolidation and retrenchment. Reasons cited for these tendencies included down oil monetary values. minimized grosss. and reduced hard currency flows. The interviews emphasized that efficiency could be improved through the usage of centralised budgeting. capital intensive labour. improved care. and reward systems. The 2nd stage involved a study administered to employees of big and little oil companies in West Texas and New Mexico. Published graduated tables for occupation satisfaction were used to analyze differences in perceptual experience of occupation security and motive between big oil company and little oil company employees. Results show higher occupation security. occupation satisfaction. and general motive degrees among employees of little oil companies. The writers conclude with a treatment of relevant research and direction deductions. | Introduction Directors of big. independent. and little oil companies are progressively recognizing that the oil and gas industry is in a province of flux. with several long term tendencies expected to significantly impact the function of the American oil worker. ( Chellgren 1995 ; Haines 1995 ) Research workers have investigated several dimensions of these industry tendencies. including the move to more corporate amalgamations ( Haines 1996 ) ; the focal point on industry consolidation peculiarly in the gas-gathering and selling spheres ( Haines 1995 ) ; the increased incidence of retrenchment ( Tobias 1996 ) ; the escalation of abroad production. peculiarly from non-OPEC states ( Gill 1995 ) ; the United States increased importing of foreign production ( Hirsch 1996 ) ; the increased usage of new 3D seismal techniques and horizontal boring ( Brown 1996 ) ; the cost-increasing effects of OSHA and EPA ordinances ( Chellgren 1995 ) ; and the demand to hike cost efficiency ( Baumann 1996 ) . These tendencies combined with the outlook of low prognosis gas monetary values ( Haines 1995 ) are doing the oil and gas industry to concentrate on decreasing costs and hiking productiveness. Indeed. the focal point on cost film editing seems to be the major industry tendency ( Haines 1996 ) . This industry place is best summarized by Cross Timbers Oil Co president Steve Palko when he echoed the words of many: no 1 is anticipating strongly increasing merchandise monetary values. so the thing to make is go more efficient by cut downing costs per net equivalent barrel. We have to demo growing without an addition in oil and gas monetary values. Thats merely world today. ( Haines 1996 ) This cost focal point is responsible for modifying the employment environment of the American Oil and Gas worker. Indeed. the cost focal point is doing the major employment tendency of increased cutbacks and layoffs. ( Knott 1996 ) Existing literature has highlighted several other employment tendencies. The most of import of which are: the reduced figure of full-time employees caused by the increased usage of impermanent trainees ( Walden 1996 ) ; the increased trust on contract workers ( Knott 1996 ) ; the intensified usage of reding houses ( Haines 1996 ) ; the tendency towards more joint research and the sharing of information ( Chellgren 1996 ) ; the effort to better operating efficiency through proficient consciousness ( Baumann 1996 ) and transverse functional groups ( Zignon 1994 ) ; the attempt to streamline direction in order to heighten corporate manoeuvrability and reactivity to market alteration ( Baumann 1996 ) ; and eventually. the heightened usage of the Internet by employees to do professional contacts ( Tobias 1996 ) and uncover proficient information( Klann 1996 ) . Hypothesis The intent of this survey is to look into how general industry tendencies are impacting employment tendencies. and how these employment tendencies are finally impacting occupation satisfaction and motive degrees. In peculiar. we would wish to analyze how workers perceptual experiences of employment tendencies differ between big and little oil companies. and how this difference in perceptual experience affects degrees of occupation security and motive. Hence we hypothesize: H1: Large and little oil companies perceive general industry trends otherwise.In peculiar. we investigate two specific dimensions of these industry tendencies: the consequence of abroad production. and the consequence of domestic ordinance. We expect that increased oil geographic expedition overseas will adversely impact the domestic oil industry by take downing the domestic oil monetary value and doing local manufacturers to take down production costs by cutting overhead. We expect these cost cuts to ensue in an increased figure of layoffs and cutbacks in big oil companies. These cutbacks will take down employee morale and diminish the degree of occupation satisfaction and security. We besides expect the legal environment to raise the costs of making concern. peculiarly for larger companies that face more intense legal demands than little companies do. This addition will further add to be force per unit areas and may ask farther cutbacks and layoffs. Once once more. these cutbacks are expected to take down employee morale and general motive degrees. Therefore. our general hypothesis has two subdivisions: H1a: Large and little oil companies perceive the effects of increased abroad production otherwise. H1b: Large and little oil companies perceive the alteration in legal ordinances otherwise. We believe that little oil company employees will non be as adversely affected by industry tendencies. as their big company opposite numbers because little companies are more flexible and manoeuvrable. peculiarly when it comes to the direction of forces. Small companies tend to reconstitute in-between direction. redefining direction functions instead than extinguishing them. Therefore. we expect occupation security and satisfaction to be higher in little companies than in big companies. This treatment can be summarized by the undermentioned major research hypothesis: H2: Large oil company employees feel more threatened by new tendencies than do little oil company employees and have lower degrees of occupation security and general motive. PRETEST Methodology Before carry oning our chief survey. it was necessary to carry on in-depth interviews to find the countries of focal point needed for the development of a research questionnaire. Consequently. a sum of 10 in depth interviews were held over a two-day clip frame. The 10 respondents were interviewed separately. The sample comprised entirely of males. All of the interviewees were selected from in-between direction. The bulk ( 60 % ) of them were selected from the oil-related concern sector ; the balance from conveyance ( 20 % ) . from chemical processing ( 10 % ) . and from independent catching ( 10 % ) . The interviewees were told that they would be involved in a survey aimed at measuring the effects that industry tendencies were holding on employment outlooks in the oil and gas sector. To this terminal. nine open-ended inquiries were asked. and the interviewees answers were tape recorded. The tapes were subsequently reviewed. and a sum-up of the chief points created. The interview inquiries were tailored to set up sentiments in three major countries of involvement: First. the effects that overseas geographic expedition and offshore boring have on the domestic oil industry. secondly. the consequence that OSHA statute law is expected to hold on the company. 3rd. the most of import industry tendencies impacting the employment environment. Interviewees were farther invited to add any remarks that they felt would be pertinent to the survey. In general. our interviewees showed a high degree of enthusiasm and engagement. Their remarks proved to be most helpful in the designing of the questionnaire. Consequences and Discussion The interviewees seemed to universally admit the being of the cutback and downsizing tendencies highlighted in the current research literature. The interviewees mentioned that the increased usage of abroad production was really of import. They felt that this tendency would go on in the hereafter. as environmental and legal costs were raising domestic industry costs. However. they believed that basic boring costs were still lower in the United States than abroad. Several interviewees from related service sectors mentioned that as the major oil companies were concentrating their attending abroad. chances for little and manoeuvrable companies were turning. Maneuverability. flexibleness. and the demand to be able to accommodate rapidly to market forces were besides mentioned as of import features of little companies. Interviewees had widely differing positions on the effects of OSHA and EPA ordinances on their industry. However. most of them agreed that OSHA ordinances were taking to increased costs and reduced net income borders. They besides mentioned that EPA and environmental statute law were increasing the costs of making concern in the United States. Some interviewees felt that increased OPEC production was adversely impacting the domestic oil concern. It was widely believed that increased OPEC production would go on to diminish gas monetary values and. therefore. gas grosss for local oil concerns. About all interviewees. some 90 % . mentioned that their companies had experienced important cutbacks in the past 3 old ages. Indeed. all interviewees emphasized that there was a definite move to streamlining operations and hiking cost efficiency. Depressed oil monetary values. minimized grosss. and reduced hard currency flows were cited as the major grounds for these cutbacks. Cutbacks took assorted signifiers. Cuting head counts through layoffs and abrasion. diminishing employee benefits. and replacing contract labour with in-house labour were mentioned. From this focus-group session several of import findings materialized. Although. several tendencies were discussed. the most of import tendency that emerged was that increased abroad production was diminishing oil monetary values in the United States and ensuing in cost film editing through layoffs and downsizing. This determination was expected and served to back several other findings discussed in current literature ( Haines 1995 ; Tobais 1996 ) . EMPLOYMENT TRENDS AND JOB SATISFACTION IN THE OIL AND GAS INDUSTRY: THE EFFECT OF CORPORATION SIZE To obtain farther information about the survey aims. a selfadministered-questionnaire was conducted utilizing a nonprobability convenience sample method. This study instrument was designed and distributed to 300 oil and gas employees in the West Texas and New Mexico country by Christian Collins. In the preamble to the questionnaire. topics were told that: The undermentioned study is portion of a research survey being carried out by undergraduate pupils at Angelo State University in concurrence with their undergraduate Business Research Course. This study is non for commercial intents. The success of this survey depends on your engagement. All responses will stay confidential. Your aid with this survey is appreciated. Thank you for your cooperation. The questionnaires were screened for truth and completeness as they were returned. In peculiar. they were checked for losing responses. wrong responses. and uncomplete replies. Problems arose with three open-ended inquiries wherein respondents were asked to rate and list any other countries non mentioned in the study. Several topics rated these open-ended inquiries. but did non name the country of concern. Therefore. when ascribing the information these inquiries were omitted. The consequences were so imputed into a ASCII file utilizing a DOS editor. This file was so used as input for the statistical plan Statistical Analysis System ( SAS ) . Frequency tabular arraies were used to develop basic thoughts about the information collected from these questionnaires. Descriptive statistics and factor analysis were used to place the implicit in dimensions of sensed industry tendencies. employment tendencies. and general satisfaction degrees. Analysis of Variance ( ANOVA ) and T-Tests were so used to turn to the survey aims. Sample The concluding sample consisted of 188 respondents. The study response rate was 63. 66 % . The demographic statistics of the sample are described overleaf in Table 1. From Table 1 it can be seen that 85. 4 % of the respondents were male. The bulk ( 52. 2 % ) of the respondents were between 31 and 45 old ages of age. Most of the respondents ( 29. 8 % ) had worked in the oil industry for 21 old ages or more. The average income was between $ 30. 001 and $ 45. 000 per annum. The majority of respondents were employees ( 68. 8 % ) . However. proprietors ( 11. 2 % ) . supervisors ( 12. 8 % ) . and directors ( 5. 3 % ) were besides represented. The writers felt that these demographic statistics were representative of the oil industry in general and felt justified in utilizing this sample. Table 1 Description of the Sample Demographic Characteristics No. ( 188 ) % No. ( 188 ) % Gender Old ages in oil concern male 158 85. 41-5 old ages 23 12. 2 female 27 14. 6 6-10 old ages 22 11. 7 11-15years 36 19. 1 16-20years 51 27. 1 21 or more old ages 56 29. 8 Age Income 19 and under 0 0. 0 $ 15. 000 and under 18 12. 6 19-30 27 14. 7 $ 15. 001- $ 30. 000 40 28. 0 31-45 96 52. 2 $ 30. 001- $ 45. 000 44 30. 8 46-55 47 25. 5 $ 45. 001- $ 60. 000 25 17. 5 over 55 14 7. 6 over $ 60. 000 16 11. 2 Position Type of Company proprietor 21 11. 2Large 58 31. 2 supervisor 24 12. 8 Small 2 1. 1 director 10 5. 3 Independent 16 8. 6 employee 128 68. 1 Related concern 88 47. 3 other 5 2. 7 Other 22 11. 8 Analysis and Consequences The questionnaire included 3 different steps to measure industry tendencies. employment tendencies. and motive degrees severally. Factor analysis was used in an explorative mode to analyse the interrelatednesss between the inquiry points. In peculiar. chief component analysis with varimax rotary motion was chosen to place which of these points would constellate together distinctively and function as a one-dimensional step of basic tendencies ( Hair et al 1995 ) . This data decrease technique was used to make one-dimensional variables. Because these variables were used in subsequent testing. we performed correlativity analysis of the points stand foring each factor as suggested by Churchill ( 1979 ) . Evaluation of industry tendencies: Twelve inquiries utilizing a 5 point graduated table were used to measure perceptual experiences of basic tendencies in the oil industry. Several tendencies were itemized and ranked. Respondents were asked â€Å"to evaluate each of the following on a graduated table of 1 ( Highly of import ) to 5 ( Not of import at all ) † . with 3 ( Neither Important Nor Unimportant ) . stand foring that the tendency was non evident. On utilizing factor analysis with varimax rotary motion. two factors emerged. The factor contents. rotated factor burdens. and Cronbacks Alpha explained by each factor can be seen in Table 2. From Table 2 it can be seen that two factors were identified under factor analysis. They highlight general tendencies in the oil and gas industry. Each of the factors identified had Eigen values in surplus of 1. 00. The two groups of factors along with their Cronbacks Alphas are: domestic activities ( 0. 88 ) . and legal and abroad factors ( 0. 86 ) . Domestic activities refer to those issues that straight affect the local oil industry. These effects. along with their burdens. include: a lessening in industry occupation satisfaction ( 0. 88 ) . a lessening in oil production ( 0. 85 ) . decreased oil geographic expedition ( 0. 84 ) . and an addition in layoffs ( 0. 79 ) . The postulated effects of increased oil production and geographic expedition have been good documented in current literature ( Chellgren 1995 ) . Consequently. we were non surprised by these findings. The Legal and Overseas factor contains six points mentioning to legal and foreign issues that affect the oil industry. Their burdens range from 0. 84 ( Increased Oil Exploration ) to 0. 53 ( Low Morale ) . Two of the tendencies in the legal and abroad factor mentioned relate to ordinances. viz. environmental ( 0. 80 ) and safety ( 0. 69 ) ordinances. Once once more. the expected effects of increased ordinances are good documented in the current literature. Therefore. the determination of the legal and abroad factor was in conformity with our outlooks ( Chellgren 1995 ) . Table 2 Correlations Between Industry Trends Dimensions of Industry Trends Trend attributes| Legal and Overseas| Domestic|Increase in abroad exploration| 0. 84| 0. 19|Increas in environmental regulation| 0. 80| 0. 17|Increase in cost effeciency| 0. 76| 0. 23|Increase in abroad production| 0. 76| 0. 19|Addition in safety regulation| 0. 69| 0. 27|Increase in offshore drilling| 0. 64| 0. 37|Low morale| 0. 53| 0. 33|Decrease in occupation security| 0. 26| 0. 88|Decrese in U. S. oil production| 0. 29| 0. 85|Addition in employee layoffs| 0. 23| 0. 84|Decrease in U. S oil exploration| 0. 23| 0. 79|Cronbackss Coefficient Alpha 0. 86 0. 88 Note: Datas obtained by factor analysis with extraneous rotary motion ( varimax ) Underlined burdens place tendencies that are extremely correlated with a given dimension. These two factors closely. but non precisely. fit one of the initial aims of the survey: which was to look into the effects that OSHA ordinances and increased abroad production have on the oil and gas industry. Because these findings were congruous with old research. we felt justified in utilizing these factors as variables for farther testing. Evaluation of how industry trends affect employment tendencies A 13-item inquiry set was used to measure respondents sentiments on employment tendencies. Overall sentiments about how industry trends affect employment tendencies were measured by inquiring respondents to rate each statement refering the oil industry from 5 ( Strongly Disagree ) to 1 ( Strongly Agree ) † . with 3 ( Neutral ) . stand foring the place that a peculiar industry tendency was non impacting the employee environment. Table 3 shows the relevant tendencies and factor burden. Table 3 Correlations between specific factors impacting employment tendencies Dimensions of Employment Trends Employment tendency attributes| Market Effects| OSHAregulations| Overseasproduction| Increased market portion by little oil companies| 0. 70| 0. 23| -0. 01| Increased employment in little oil companies| 0. 68| -0. 05| 0. 04| Small oil companies will profit from tendencies in the industry | 0. 61| 0. 06| 0. 01| Increased wage in little oil companies| 0. 59| -0. 06| -0. 01| OSHA effects Small and independent oil companies| 0. 53| 0. 11| -0. 14| OSHA ordinances addition disbursals in my company| 0. 10| 0. 85| -0. 04| OSHA ordinances have increased the cost of making business| 0. 05| 0. 84| 0. 14| Abroad geographic expedition is aching big oil companies| -0. 03| -0. 22| 0. 80| Increased abroad oil production| -0. 13| 0. 25| 0. 72| The figure of oil related concern has decreased| -0. 01| 0. 37| 0. 46| Cronbackss Coefficient Alpha 0. 66 0. 69 0. 45 Note: Datas obtained by factor analysis with extraneous rotary motion ( varimax ) Underlined burdens place tendencies that are extremely correlated with a given dimension. From Table 3 it can be seen that three factors were identified All three of these factors had Eigen values in surplus of 1. 00. The three factors. along with their Crombacks Alphas. are market effects ( 0. 66 ) . OSHA ordinance effects ( 0. 69 ) . and abroad production effects ( 0. 45 ) . These three factors are discussed individually below. We believed that the comparatively high burden of the market consequence factor ( 0. 66 ) was an indicant of respondents belief that trends in the oil industry were impacting little companies. Several dimensions of the little company tendencies were identified. These include: increased employment in little oil companies ( 0. 68 ) . the addition in wage at little oil companies ( 0. 53 ) . the consequence that OSHA ordinances had on little oil companies ( 0. 53 ) . and the addition in market portion of little oil companies ( 0. 70 ) . Therefore. it can be postulated. that industry tendencies were non holding an inauspicious consequence on little oil companies because most of the tendencies listed have positive intensions. These findings were in conformity with our outlooks and current literature. wherein it had been postulated that little agile companies can profit from germinating tendencies ( Brown 1996 ) . We had postulated that OSHA ordinances were increasing the costs of making concern in the United States. The fact that the OSHA ordinance consequence was identified lends strong support to this averment. Two elements of this factor were identified: increased disbursals ( 0. 85 ) . and increased costs of making concern ( 0. 84 ) . Once once more. this was in conformity with current literature. wherein it was suggested that the legal environment is increasing costs and ensuing in cutbacks in the workplace ( Howard 1994 ) . Three elements of the abroad production factor were identified. These elements had burdens that ranged from 0. 84 ( Overseas geographic expedition is aching domestic concern ) to 0. 40 ( The figure of oil concerns has decreased ) . Current literature indicates that increased abroad production would diminish oil monetary values and hence adversely affects domestic oil companies. ( Tobias 1996 ) The fact that OSHA ordinances and abroad production were considered to impact employment tendencies is important because these two steps are the focal points of H1a and H1b. The writers felt that the outgrowth of these factors gave sufficient logical evidences to prove H1 and H2. Consequently. ANOVA trials were subsequently conducted to analyze if there were important differences in the perceptual experience of these factors between big and little oil companies. Evaluation of occupation security. occupation satisfaction and general motive degrees A 10-item inquiry set was used to measure occupation security. perceived occupation satisfaction. and general motive. In response to a series of descriptive statements. topics were asked to â€Å"rate each issue covering with occupation satisfaction† on a 5 point graduated table of 1 ( Highly Dissatisfied ) to 5 ( Highly Satisfied ) . This inquiry set was based on the Specific Satisfactions Job Diagnostic study developed by Hackman and Oldham in 1975. These inquiries were selected because consequences from these graduated tables have been good documented in published studies by Hackman and Oldham ( 1974. 1975. 1980 ) . The writers felt that the usage of these established steps would impart truth and acceptableness to the survey. Table 4 shows the consequences of the factor analysis. From Table 4 it can be seen that factor analysis was once more used to place sub-components of general motive. Two component factors of motive were found. Each of the factors identified had an Eigne value in surplus of 1. 00. The two factors along with their Eigen values are: occupation security ( 1. 53 ) . and work context satisfaction ( 5. 75 ) . The work context satisfaction refers to work environment issues such as wage and periphery benefits ( 0. 76 ) . just intervention from supervisors ( 0. 76 ) . and the sum of independent idea allowed ( 0. 69 ) . Hackman and Oldham have proven that this factor is concerned with intrinsic characteristics of the occupation. This factor refers to the grade to which an employee is satisfied with chances for personal growing and development on the occupation ( Hackman and Oldham 1975 ) . The occupation security factor was considered to be really of import. as evidenced by the high Cronbacks Alpha of 0. 90. By analyzing the inquiry points. and their agencies. it became evident that respondents felt that occupation security is being decreased by current industry tendencies. This is of import sing that H2 relates straight to decreased occupation security. Table 4 Correlations Between General Employment Attributes General motive and occupation security items| Job Security| Specific Satisfactions| How unafraid things look for me in this organization| 0. 90| 0. 17| The sum of occupation security I have| 0. 89| 0. 12| The sum of personal growing and development | 0. 29| 0. 79| The grade to which I am reasonably paid for what I contribute| -0. 01| 0. 77| The sum of wage and periphery benefits I receive| -0. 15| 0. 76| The grade of regard and just intervention I get from my boss| 0. 34| 0. 76| The sum of counsel and support I receive from my supervisor| 0. 36| 0. 72| The overall quality of the supervising I receive| 0. 35| 0. 71| The sum of independent idea and action I can exercise| 0. 15| 0. 69| The sum of challenge in my job| 0. 25| 0. 69| Cronbacks Alpha 0. 90 0. 86 Note: Datas obtained by factor analysis with extraneous rotary motion ( varimax ) Underlined burdens place tendencies that are extremely correlated with a given dimension. The find of these two dimensions was expected and congruous with old research done. utilizing these satisfaction graduated tables ( Hackman and Oldham 1975 ) . That general motive could be decomposed into these two tendencies is of import. sing that the major aim of this survey ( H2 ) was to measure both occupation security and general motive. We investigated the research hypotheses by utilizing the analysis of discrepancy ( ANOVA ) process. This process was done in the mode recommended by Tukey. Because our group sizes were non equal. we were required to utilize Tukeys process. The Tukeys Studentised Range ( HSD ) Test controls the type 1 experimentwise mistake rate. However. it should besides be noted that this trial. by and large. has a higher type 2 mistake rate than other ANOVA trials. During the ANOVA tests we compared the difference of agencies. of the above-described factors. as perceived by the employees of big and little oil companies. Table 5 presents the agencies of big and little companies. the F ratio and the P reading. Table 5 Consequences of ANOVA Testing Between Means of Large and Small Oil Companies Factor| Large Company Mean| Small CompanyMean| F-Value| p=| Industry Trends| | | | |Legal and Overseas | 13. 28| 12. 17| 1. 49| 0. 23|Domestic | 6. 92| 6. 86| 0. 82| 0. 49|Employment Trends| | | | |Small Company| 11. 80| 14. 11| 16. 06| 0. 001*|OSHA Regulation| 3. 02| 3. 33| 5. 49| 0. 0012*|Overseas Production| 8. 14| 7. 65| 0. 94| 0. 42|General Motivation| | | | |Specific Satisfactions| 18. 99| 14. 24| 5. 91| 0. 0007*| Job Security| 7. 93| 4. 22| 45. 71| 0. 0001*| Note: 1 Figures obtained by utilizing The Tukeys Studentised Range ( HSD ) Test. 2* Implies that a important difference between big and little company means. H1: Large and little oil companies perceive general industry trends otherwiseFrom Table 5. it can readily be seen that there was non a important difference between the perceptual experience of the legal and abroad factor and the domestic factor. The fact that both company sizes agreed on industry tendencies. was taken as an indicant that the tendencies were common across all company sizes and therefore were representative of the tendencies in the industry as a whole. Furthermore. because the domestic factor included tendencies like a lessening in occupation security and increased employee layoffs ( see Table 2 ) . and there was no difference in this perceptual experience. it was felt that both big and little companies had experienced similar layoffs and cutbacks. H1a: Large and little oil companies perceive the effects of increased abroad production otherwise It can clearly be seen that big and little oil companies do non comprehend the consequence of abroad production otherwise. Because the abroad production factor contained inquiry points like abroad production is aching big oil companies. and abroad geographic expedition is aching oil related concerns ( see Table 3 ) . it can be implied that both big and little ( oil related concerns are normally little companies ) companies believe that abroad production adversely effects them. H1b: Large and little oil companies perceive the alteration in ordinances otherwise There was a important difference between big ( 3. 02 ) and little oil ( 3. 17 ) companies means associating to the OSHA ordinance factor. We interpreted this consequence as an indicant that big oil companies believe that OSHA ordinances would impact them more than it would impact smaller oil companies. Because the big company mean was lower than the little company mean. and hence considered more of import ( see Table 3 ) . we can reason that big oil companies believe that they will be affected more adversely by ordinances than smaller oil companies will. H2: Large oil company employees feel more threatened by new tendencies than do little oil company employees and have lower degrees of occupation security and general motive. Degrees of general motive were considered to differ significantly between big and little oil companies. It can readily be seen from Table 5. that both the specific satisfaction factor. and the occupation security factor were significantly different. This strong support lends acceptance to our original predication that little oil company employees do non experience as strongly threatened by industry tendencies as big oil company employees do because big oil companies are downsizing by extinguishing places whereas smaller oil companies are reconstituting. redefining employment functions. instead than extinguishing them. Decision Our research shows that workers perceive several industry tendencies. These industry trends lead to an increased accent on cost efficiency. hiking productiveness. retrenchment. and consolidation. These tendencies can be divided into two specific factors: domestic and legal and abroad. Both little and big oil companies consider the domestic factor to be every bit of import. but big companies consider the legal and abroad factor to be more of import than little companies do. We were able to farther polish our findings. By measuring differences in the sensed effects of legal ordinance we were able to turn out that there is a important difference between perceptual experiences employees of little and big companies. Therefore. we can reason that the difference in the perceptual experience of the effects of legal ordinances is partly responsible for the difference in the perceptual experience of employment tendencies. Consequently. the ensuing different employment environments. in bend. affects occupation security and general motive degrees otherwise. Of considerable involvement was the determination that little oil companies have a higher grade of occupation satisfaction and general motive than big oil companies do. We attribute this phenomenon to the impression that big oil companies are downsizing by extinguishing places. whereas smaller oil companies are reconstituting. redefining employment functions. instead than extinguishing them. MANAGERIAL IMPLICATIONS The chief message for directors in the oil industry is apparent- the full industry is going progressively competitory. and cost efficiency and increased productiveness are the major concerns of every company in the industry. First. directors should be cognizant that cost efficiency is being achieved through restructuring corporations and spread outing the functions of workers. Downsizing. streamlining. and a committedness to flexibleness is the new order. As a consequence of these altering corporate constructions. layoffs and cutbacks are going progressively common. Second. directors should recognize that improved productiveness is being achieved by concentrating on squad constructs. cross-functional groups. reward systems. improved technological consciousness. and enriched preparation. We felt that mentoring may be another method worthy of consideration. Small companies tend to hold a more cohesive relationship between staff and direction ; if big companies could emulate this construct. it might be possible to better their occupation satisfaction. Third. directors should see that employees are being required to execute a wider assortment of undertakings. Employees presents are required to be more technologically cognizant. and to be able to work in squads. In the yesteryear. specialisation of employees was stressed ; today general. preparation is going more of import. Hence. directors are going responsible for supervising a wider assortment of divergent employment functions. With the work force going more diversified. directors will hold to broaden their cognition base. and be more flexible in undertaking rating and deputation. Finally. this disruptive employment environment has radically affected occupation satisfaction. and motive. Directors are under increasing force per unit area to happen new methods to maintain the work force happy. focused. and productive. Many oil companies are utilizing reward systems and public presentation ends to assist maintain workers stimulated and motivated. It was felt that because occupation security was deemed of import. it may be possible to hike occupation satisfaction by offering non-monetary inducements. Job security inducements. such as LIFO and long term contracts. may hike occupation satisfaction and general degrees of motive. Further RESEARCH An interesting avenue for farther research highlighted by our survey would be to measure the occupation satisfaction of employees of big oil companies runing abroad and compare it to that of employees of big oil companies runing in the United States. We investigated the occupation satisfaction of employees in the domestic sphere. We did non measure employment satisfaction for those employees runing abroad. With the international function of oil companies going progressively more of import. this facet of occupation satisfaction within the oil industry may turn out to be of great future significance. Besides of involvement for farther research is the survey of a broader scope of oil companies. We classified oil companies as being either big or little. disregarding the industry section in which they operate. Further research could be conducted to measure occupation satisfaction within sectors of the oil industry such as boring. transporting. refinement. and selling. It may so be possible to measure which sectors of the oil industry are sing alterations in occupation satisfaction. These alterations may foreground employment chances for the hereafter. Finally. it may be of involvement to analyze the methods directors are using to maintain employees motivated and satisfied in this unsure on the job environment. A broad assortment of methods are presently being implemented. The effectivity of these methods has non yet been to the full investigated. The generalizability of this survey is limited because our sample was restricted to oil companies in Texas and New Mexico. Although our research has provided some utile consequences. farther research should take this survey closer to world by carry oning a study with a wider geographic base. All of these demands provide interesting chances for coaction between faculty members and practicians. Mentions Haines. Leslie ( 1996 ) . More Room to Run. Oil A ; Gas Journal. ( April ) . 42-44 — ( 1995 ) . Position from the Bridge. Oil A ; Gas Journal. ( December ) . 24-27 Baumann. Barbara ( 1996 ) . Pull offing calling development: Amaco primes the pump. Personnel Journal. ( February ) . 79-83 Bonney. Dennis J. ( 1994 ) . Geopolitical tendencies shape hereafter of universe crude oil industry. Oil A ; Gas Journal. ( February ) . 34-35 Brown. David ( 1996 ) . Meat and Potatoes. Oil and Gas Investor. ( April ) . 38-41 Chellgren. Paul W. ( 1995 ) . Contemplations on U. S. downstream: A market in Transition. Oil A ; Gas Journal. ( March ) . 106-107 Decrane. Alfred C Jr. ( 1995 ) . Cheaper by the Gallon. Vital Speeches of the Day. ( December ) . 159-160 Gill. Douglas ( 1995 ) . Dodging the natural gas monetary value slug. Oil A ; Gas Investor. ( March ) . 63-67 Hirsch. Robert L. ( 1996 ) . The Energy Plateau. Public Utilities Fortnightly. ( March ) . 13-15 Howard. Phillip K. ( 1994 ) . The Death of Common Sense. how jurisprudence is smothering America. Warner Books. 14-15 Klann. Susan ( 1996 ) . The R A ; D quandary. Oil and Gas Investor. ( April ) . 5 Knott. David ( 1996 ) . Oil industry hazard accomplishments deficit. Oil A ; Gas Journal. ( May ) . 36 Koen. A. D. ( 1995 ) . U. S. Upstream trust turning on concerted plans in R A ; D. Oil A ; Gas Journal. ( April ) . 17-21 Tobias. Steven M. ( 1996 ) . Pull offing abroad E A ; P in the age of the Internet. Oil A ; gas Journal. ( March ) . 75-79 Weldon. David ( 1996 ) . Training for the new millenary. Computeruniverse. ( June ) . 42-47 Zignon. Jack ( 1994 ) . Oil company learns to mensurate team-work public presentation. Personnel Journal. ( November ) . 46-49 ——————————————–[ 1 ] . Throughout our survey. T-Tests ( ? =0. 05 ) for gender differentiations showed no differences.